Glossary

A

  • Alzheimer's dementia is the most common form of dementia and is characterised by the following symptoms: progressive memory loss, attention and problem-solving problems, temporal and spatial confusion, reduced judgement and decision-making, changes in personality and emotions (confusion, suspiciousness, depression, anxiety), and impaired cognitive abilities.

  • Anxiety is a mental (feelings of fear, discomfort, reduced concentration, etc.) and physical state (increased heart rate, sweating, etc.) that we experience when we are not objectively threatened, but there is something (perhaps even an unreal or unknown threat) that causes us to feel anxious. Anxiety can be experienced by anyone and does not necessarily represent a mental disorder. We talk about anxiety disorders when the feeling of anxiety is more intense, lasts longer and also affects our daily functioning. Anxiety disorders include panic attacks, generalised anxiety disorder, specific phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorder and also post-traumatic stress disorder.

  • The amygdala is one of two groups of almond-shaped nuclei located deep in the temporal lobes. It is activated when we are afraid and exposed to a potential threat. Its main function is to control emotional processes, but it is also involved in memory and learning.

  • A technique where autosuggestion is used to achieve a deep state of relaxation.

  • The theory that the brain predicts and processes sensory information based on past experience.

  • The experience of autonomous arousal in the absence of perceived negative affect.

  • Antidepressants are a type of medication primarily used to treat clinical depression, but can also be prescribed to treat other disorders such as obsessive-compulsive disorder, PTSD, generalised anxiety disorder, sleep disorders, etc.

  • An antipsychotic or neuroleptic is a type of medicine used to treat psychotic disorders, especially schizophrenia.

  • Adenosine is a neurotransmitter that accumulates in the brain during prolonged wakefulness and stimulates the need for sleep. If adenosine does not bind to its receptors, we stay awake.

  • Reduced ability to experience pleasure.

  • A painful response to a painless stimulus.

B

  • Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a protein that is essential for the survival, growth and maintenance of neurons in key brain areas involved in emotional and cognitive functioning.

  • The basal ganglia are nuclei located in both hemispheres of the brain, whose function is to control and initiate movement. Together with the cerebellum, they are part of the extrapyramidal motor system, which is responsible, among other things, for reflexes and postural control. They are composed of the following nuclei: caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus. They play an important role in cognition, emotion and behaviour regulation.

  • Biofeedback is a method of giving immediate feedback on physiological processes in the body that we are not normally aware of. The aim of the method is to use a device/detector to detect physiological changes in the body (e.g. breathing, heart activity, muscle activity, brain activity, etc.), the information about which is then plotted as parameters on graphs. The feedback is used to learn how to consciously change the physiological parameter.

D

  • Dysphagia is a medical term for difficulty swallowing. It is a serious medical condition that can occur at any age. Some symptoms:

    • pain when swallowing;

    • feeling that food is stuck in the throat or chest area;

    • acid;

    • inability to swallow;

    • drooling; etc.

E

  • The process of perceiving stimuli from the external environment (i.e. outside the body). Examples of stimuli: visual, auditory, tactile, etc.

  • Epilepsy is a chronic brain disease characterised by a persistent tendency to have seizures or convulsions.

  • Endorphin is a type of peptide hormone secreted by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in response to stress or pain. It acts as a painkiller and promotes a feeling of well-being.

  • Electromyographic biofeedback is a non-invasive therapy that uses electrodes to measure muscle activity. The electrodes are connected to an electronic device that provides the patient with feedback on current muscle activity, using visual or acoustic signals. Based on the feedback, the patient can increase or decrease muscle activity.

  • Swelling

F

  • Functional connectivity means that 2 or more spatially distant brain regions are active at the same time. The idea of functional connectivity stems from historical localisation theory, which assumed that different brain regions are used to perform different mental functions. Thus, even today, it is still the case that in order to carry out different brain processes, we need several different brain areas that are spatially separated but functionally connected and that form brain networks with each other.

  • Functional MRI is a method used to study the activity of brain regions at rest or during various tasks. The activity of brain cells is detected based on the brain's oxygen consumption and blood flow, which means that the technique does not require direct intervention in the brain.

G

  • A globus is a persistent feeling of a lump or foreign object stuck in a person's throat.

H

  • Increased sensitivity to painful stimuli.

K

  • A type of substance that affects our central nervous system by increasing its activity. The stimulating effects on our system are reflected in increased alertness, reduced fatigue, increased attention, faster heartbeat and higher blood pressure. It is found in coffee, some types of tea, energy drinks and even dark chocolate, among others.

  • Simultaneous presence of two or more disorders/diseases/symptoms in a patient.

L

  • It is also called the "emotional brain". These are the different structures, such as the hippocampus, amygdala, thalamus and hypothalamus, that are involved in the processing of emotions, memory and motivation. The limbic region of the brain is located directly below the temporal lobes.

  • Locus of control refers to an individual's perception of the level of control over their own actions. Locus of control can be internal or external. Individuals who have a strong internal locus of control believe that they have personal control over their actions and tend to take responsibility for their behaviour. In contrast, individuals with a strong external locus of control attribute their actions to external factors and/or luck/misfortune.

M

  • The sum of the chemical reactions that take place in the body to convert food and drink into energy and new organic material.

  • Metacognition is the ability to control and reflect on cognitive processes.

  • A hormone released in the brain that plays an important role in sleep.

N

  • The neuroendocrine system is made up of neuroendocrine cells and represents the combined action of the nervous and endocrine systems. Based on signals received from the nervous system, neuroendocrine cells produce and secrete hormones that control many bodily functions.

  • NREM is sleep without rapid eye movement and comprises three unique stages of sleep called stage 1, stage 2 and stage 3 NREM sleep. Common features of all three stages are slowed brain function, slowed breathing and heart rate, as well as slowed muscle activity.

P

  • The prefrontal cortex is a region that covers the frontal lobe of the brain and only fully develops in late adolescence. It represents the centre of personality and higher-order cognitive processes such as planning, decision-making, reasoning, response inhibition, etc.

  • A branch of the central nervous system designed to relax the body after a period of danger or stress. It is also involved in the digestive process.

  • Parkinson's disease is the second most common neurodegenerative disease after Alzheimer's dementia. It is characterised by a deficiency of the neurotransmitter dopamine. Motor symptoms refer to slowness or absence of movement, difficulty initiating movement, reduced mobility, rigidity, tremors at rest and postural instability. In addition to motor symptoms, sleep disturbances, cognitive impairment and autonomic nervous system dysfunction are also common. The disorder more commonly affects the female sex, and treatment is focused on symptom relief.

  • The word 'pathophysiological' refers to abnormal changes in bodily functions that are both causes and consequences of a particular disease/disorder.

  • A sudden and recurrent increase in the number of symptoms of a disease/disorder.

  • The premotor cortex is the area of the brain immediately anterior to the primary motor cortex, whose function is to prepare for movement.

  • Periaqueductal grey is an area of grey in the brainstem surrounded by the cerebral aqueduct. It is also called the 'analgesic centre' because of its role in pain suppression.

  • The patient presents with a wide range of symptoms.

  • A mental disorder triggered by a traumatic event that we have either experienced or witnessed. Symptoms may include reliving the event, nightmares, severe anxiety and uncontrolled thoughts about the event.

R

  • REM is a stage of sleep that is also called the active or paradoxical state because it is very similar to the waking state in terms of physiological reactions. REM was first discovered in the 1950s when researchers found that sleeping babies, during certain stages of sleep, have their eyes move rapidly from side to side - hence the name rapid eye movement sleep. During REM, the brain becomes highly active, the heart rate speeds up, and breathing becomes more regular, but unlike in the waking state, we temporarily lose the ability to tone our muscles. In fact, we are paralysed, which prevents us from literally acting out our dreams during the REM phase, during which most dreams take place.

  • A reduction and/or disappearance of the signs and symptoms of a disorder/disease.

S

  • A branch of the central nervous system, also known as the fight or flight system. It is activated during periods of danger or stress. When it is activated, our heart rate increases, blood pressure rises, breathing becomes shallower and faster, etc.

  • The structure of the brain changes all the time throughout life. On average, the brain shrinks by 5-10% between the ages of 20 and 90. This is also when certain brain structures are significantly reduced (e.g. the prefrontal cortex shrinks faster than the rest of the brain, which contributes to cognitive decline). Structural changes can also be a consequence and/or cause of certain disorders.

  • The supplementary motor area is a region of the motor cortex involved in postural stabilisation and coordination.

  • The grey matter forms the outermost layer of the brain and has a grey tone due to the high concentration of neuronal cell bodies. It also extends into the spinal cord, where it creates a horn-like structure. The grey makes the signalling between the brain and the spinal cord more efficient.

  • The reward system is a system in the brain made up of structures that are activated when we have experiences that make us feel rewarded (e.g. eating tasty food, having sex, etc.). When the brain encounters a rewarding stimulus, it releases higher levels of dopamine, a key neurotransmitter associated with pleasure and rewards.

  • Change in colour and/or blood flow.

T

  • Transcutaneous electrical neurostimulation, known by its acronym TENS, is an electrical current method that activates nerves to reduce pain.

  • Tourette's syndrome is a chronic neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by motor and vocal tics.